COVID-19–Related Discrimination Among Racial/Ethnic Minorities and Other Marginalized Communities in the United States

Note. CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio. Discriminatory behavior includes being called names, being threatened/harassed, and hearing racist comments because people think you might have COVID-19. Data are weighted to be nationally representative within each racial/ethnic group. The study sample size was 5500.
^aModeled with multinomial logistic regression (sometimes/always, rarely, and never [reference]); all ORs adjusted for all other variables in the table.
^bNonbinary includes individuals who reported being nonbinary, gender fluid, gender queer, "other," and no gender.
^cLimited English proficiency was defined as speaking English "not at all," "poorly," or "fairly well."
^dIncludes some college/vocational school, bachelor's degree, master's degree, and doctoral or postgraduate education.
^eNot employed includes temporarily laid off, unemployed, retired, permanently disabled, taking care of home or family, student, and other.
^fCollected at enrollment into panel and updated every 6 months.
^gA total of 659 (unweighted) participants selected "prefer not to say" and were dropped from the model; when household income was not included in the analysis, similar effect estimates for the other covariates were seen (data not shown).
^hA total of 125 participants (unweighted) did not provide information on residential urbanicity and were not included in the analysis.

Note. CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio. Participants were asked: How often have you experienced the following since the start of the pandemic: people acted as if they were afraid of you because they think you might have COVID-19. Data are weighted to be nationally representative within each racial/ethnic group. The study sample size was 5500.
^aModeled with multinomial logistic regression (sometimes/always, rarely, and never [reference]); all ORs adjusted for all other variables in the table.
^bNonbinary includes individuals who reported being nonbinary, gender fluid, gender queer, "other," and no gender.
^cLimited English proficiency was defined as speaking English "not at all," "poorly," or "fairly well."
^dIncludes some college/vocational school, bachelor's degree, master's degree, and doctoral or postgraduate education.
^eNot employed includes temporarily laid off, unemployed, retired, permanently disabled, taking care of home or family, student, and other.
^fCollected at enrollment into panel and updated every 6 months.
^gA total of 659 (unweighted) participants selected "prefer not to say" and were dropped from the model; when household income was not included in the analysis, similar effect estimates for the other covariates were seen (data not shown).
^hA total of 125 participants (unweighted) did not provide information on residential urbanicity and were not included in the analysis.

Note. CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio. Discriminatory behavior includes being called names, being threatened/harassed, and hearing racist comments because people think you might have COVID-19. Also, participants were asked: How often have you experienced the following since the start of the pandemic—people acted as if they were afraid of you because they think you might have COVID-19.
^aModeled with multinomial logistic regression (sometimes/always, rarely, and never [reference]); all ORs adjusted for all other variables in the table.
^bNonbinary and transgender participants were excluded from all analyses.
^cLimited English proficiency was defined as speaking English "not at all," "poorly," or "fairly well."
^dBecause of the large proportion of Asian participants with college degrees, education was categorized as high school graduate or less (< high school n = 40), some college/vocational degree, bachelor's degree, and postgraduate degree.
^eNot employed included temporarily laid off, unemployed, retired, permanently disabled, taking care of home or family, student, and other.
^fCollected at enrollment into the panel and updated every 6 months.
^gA total of 141 (unweighted) participants selected "prefer not to say" and were dropped from the model; when household income was not included in the analysis, similar effect estimates for the other covariates were seen (data not shown).
^hOne participant (unweighted) did not provide information on residential urbanicity and was not included in the analysis.

Authors and Disclosures

Paula D. Strassle, PhD, MSPH, Anita L. Stewart, PhD, Stephanie M. Quintero, BA, Jackie Bonilla, BS, Alia Alhomsi, BA, Verónica Santana-Ufret, BS, Ana I. Maldonado, MA, Allana T. Forde, PhD, MPH and Anna María Nápoles, PhD, MPH

Paula D. Strassle, Stephanie M. Quintero, Jackie Bonilla, Alia Alhomsi, Verónica Santana-Ufret, Ana I. Maldonado, Allana T. Forde, and Anna María Nápoles are with the Division of Intramural Research, National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. Anita L. Stewart is with the Center for Aging in Diverse Communities, Institute for Health & Aging, University of California, San Francisco.

Correspondence should be sent to
Paula D. Strassle, PhD, MSPH, National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892 (e-mail: paula.strassle@nih.gov).

Contributors
P. D. Strassle, A. L. Stewart, and A.M Nápoles designed the study. P.D. Strassle analyzed the data and wrote the first draft. All of the authors critically reviewed the article.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.